A museum is an institution that houses and cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. The continuing acceleration in the digitization of information, combined with the increasing capacity of digital information storage, is causing the traditional model of museums (i.e. as static “collections of collections” of three-dimensional specimens and artifacts) to expand to include virtual exhibits and high-resolution images of their collections for perusal, study, and exploration from any place with Internet connectivity.

Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts.

The museums of ancient times, such as the Musaeum of Alexandria, would be equivalent to a modern graduate institute.

History

Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts. These were often displayed in so-called wonder rooms or cabinets of curiosities. Public access was often possible for the "respectable", especially to private art collections, but at the whim of the owner and his staff. The oldest such museum in evidence was Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum, dating from c. 530 BCE and devoted to Mesopotamian antiquities; it apparently had sufficient traffic as to warrant a labels for the ordered collection.

The oldest public museums in the world opened in Rome during the Renaissance. However, many significant museums in the world were not founded until the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment:

the Capitoline Museums, the oldest public collection of art in the world, began in 1471 when Pope Sixtus IV donated a group of important ancient sculptures to the people of Rome.

the Vatican Museums, the second oldest museum in the world, traces its origins to the public displayed sculptural collection begun in 1506 by Pope Julius II

the Amerbach Cabinet, originally a private collection, was bought by the university and city of Basel in 1661 and opened to the public in 1671.

the Royal Armouries in the Tower of London is the oldest museum in the United Kingdom. It opened to the public in 1660, though there had been paying privileged visitors to the armouries displays from 1592. Today the museum has three sites including its new headquarters in Leeds. the Musée des Beaux-Arts et d'archéologie in Besançon was established in 1694 after Jean-Baptiste Boisot, an abbot, gave his personal collection to the Benedictines of the city in order to create a museum open to the public two days every week. the British Museum in London, was founded in 1753 and opened to the public in 1759. Sir Hans Sloane's personal collection of curios provided the initial foundation for the British Museum's collection. the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, which had been open to visitors on request since the 16th century, was officially opened to the public 1765 the Belvedere Palace of the Habsburg monarchs in Vienna opened with a collection of art in 1781

Louvre in Paris France. The Mona Lisa Painting by Leonardo Da Vinci resides in the Louvre.

These "public" museums, however, were often accessible only by the middle and upper classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. In London for example, prospective visitors to the British Museum had to apply in writing for admission. Even by 1800 it was possible to have to wait two weeks for an admission ticket. Visitors in small groups were limited to stays of two hours. In Victorian times in England it became popular for museums to be open on a Sunday afternoon (the only such facility allowed to do so) to enable the opportunity for "self improvement" of the other - working - classes.

The first truly public museum was the Louvre Museum in Paris, opened in 1793 during the French Revolution, which enabled for the first time in history free access to the former French royal collections for people of all stations and status. The fabulous art treasures collected by the French monarchy over centuries were accessible to the public three days each "''décade''" (the 10-day unit which had replaced the week in the French Republican Calendar). The ''Conservatoire du muséum national des Arts'' (National Museum of Arts's Conservatory) was charged with organizing the Louvre as a national public museum and the centerpiece of a planned national museum system. As Napoléon I conquered the great cities of Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections grew and the organizational task became more and more complicated. After Napoleon was defeated in 1815, many of the treasures he had amassed were gradually returned to their owners (and many were not). His plan was never fully realized, but his concept of a museum as an agent of nationalistic fervor had a profound influence throughout Europe.

American museums eventually joined European museums as the world's leading centers for the production of new knowledge in their fields of interest. A period of intense museum building, in both an intellectual and physical sense was realized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (this is often called "The Museum Period" or "The Museum Age"). While many American museums, both Natural History museums and Art museums alike, were founded with the intention of focusing on the scientific discoveries and artistic developments in North America, many moved to emulate their European counterparts in certain ways (including the development of Classical collections from ancient Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia and Rome). Universities became the primary centers for innovative research in the United States well before the start of the Second World War. Nevertheless, museums to this day contribute new knowledge to their fields and continue to build collections that are useful for both research and display.

Purpose

Museums collect and care for objects of scientific, artistic, or historical importance and make them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Many times, museums concentrate on the host region's culture.

Although most museums do not allow physical contact with the associated artifacts, there are some that are interactive and encourage a more hands-on approach. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter and introduced many interactive exhibits, which give the public the opportunity to make choices and engage in activities that may vary the experience from person to person. With the advent of the internet, there are growing numbers of virtual exhibits, i.e. web versions of exhibits showing images and playing recorded sound.

Museums are usually open to the general public, sometimes charging an admission fee. Some museums are publicly funded and have no entrance fee, either permanently or on special days, e.g. once per week or year.

Museums are usually not run for the purpose of making a profit, unlike private galleries which more often engage in the sale of objects. There are governmental museums, non-governmental or non-profit museums, and privately owned or family museums. Museums can be a reputable and generally trusted source of information about cultures and history.

Definitions include: "permanent institution in the service of society and of its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the ''tangible and intangible'' heritage of humanity and its environment, for the purposes of education, study, and enjoyment", by the International Council of Museums; and "Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society," by the UK Museums Association.

Types

Types of museums vary, from very large collections in major cities, covering many of the categories below, to very small museums covering either a particular location in a general way, or a particular subject, such as an individual notable person. Categories include: fine arts, applied arts, craft, archaeology, anthropology and ethnology, history, cultural history, military history, science, technology, children's museums, maps, natural history, numismatics, botanical and zoological gardens and philately. Within these categories many museums specialize further, e.g. museums of modern art, local history, aviation history, agriculture or geology. A museum normally houses a core collection of important selected objects in its field. Objects are formally accessioned by being registered in the museum's collection with an artifact number and details recorded about their provenance. The persons in charge of the collection and of the exhibits are known as curators.

Archaeology museums

Archaeology museums specialize in the display of archaeological artifacts. Many are in the open air, such as the Acropolis of Athens and the Roman Forum. Others display artifacts found in archaeological sites inside buildings. Some, such as the Western Australian Museum, exhibit maritime archaeological materials. These appear in its Shipwreck Galleries, a wing of the Maritime Museum. This Museum has also developed a 'museum-without-walls' through a series of underwater wreck trails.

Art museums

An Art museum, also known as an art gallery, is a space for the exhibition of art, usually in the form of art objects from the visual arts, primarily paintings, illustrations, and sculpture. Collections of drawings and old master prints are often not displayed on the walls, but kept in a print room. There may be collections of applied art, including ceramics, metalwork, furniture, artist's books and other types of object. Video art is often screened.

The first publicly owned museum in Europe was the Amerbach-Cabinet in Basel, originally a private collection sold to the city in 1661 and public since 1671 (now Kunstmuseum Basel). The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford opened on 24 May 1683 as the world's first university art museum. Its first building was built in 1678–1683 to house the cabinet of curiosities Elias Ashmole gave Oxford University in 1677. The Uffizi Gallery in Florence was initially conceived as a palace for the offices of Florentian magistrates (hence the name), it later evolved into a display place for many of the paintings and sculpture collected by the Medici family or commissioned by them. After the house of Medici was extinguished, the art treasures remained in Florence, forming one of the first modern museums. The gallery had been open to visitors by request since the sixteenth century, and in 1765 it was officially opened to the public. Another early public museum was the British Museum in London, which opened to the public in 1759. It was a "universal museum" with very varied collections covering art, applied art, archaeology, anthropology, history, and science, and a library. The science collections, library, paintings and modern sculpture have since been found separate homes, leaving history, archaeology, non-European and pre-Renaissance art, and prints and drawings.

The specialised art museum is considered a fairly modern invention, the first being the Hermitage in Saint Petersburg which was established in 1764.

The Louvre in Paris was established in 1793, soon after the French Revolution when the royal treasures were declared for the people. The Czartoryski Museum in Kraków was established in 1796 by Princess Izabela Czartoryska. This showed the beginnings of removing art collections from the private domain of aristocracy and the wealthy into the public sphere, where they were seen as sites for educating the masses in taste and cultural refinement.

History museums

History museums cover the knowledge of history and its relevance to the present and future. Some cover specialized curatorial aspects of history or a particular locality; others are more general. Such museums contain a wide range of objects, including documents, artifacts of all kinds, art, archaeological objects. Antiquities museums specialize in more archaeological findings.

A common type of history museum is a historic house. A historic house may be a building of special architectural interest, the birthplace or home of a famous person, or a house with an interesting history. Historic sites can also become museums, particularly those that mark public crimes, such as Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum or Robben Island. Another type of history museum is a living museum. A living museum is where people recreate a time period to the fullest extent, including buildings, clothes and language. It is similar to historical reenactment.

Maritime museums

Maritime museums specialize in the display of objects relating to ships and travel on seas and lakes. They may include a historic ship (or a replica) made accessible as a museum ship.

Military and war museums

Military museums specialize in military histories; they are often organized from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular country will have displays organized around conflicts in which that country has taken part. They typically include displays of weapons and other military equipment, uniforms, wartime propaganda and exhibits on civilian life during wartime, and decorations, among others. A military museum may be dedicated to a particular service or area, such as the Imperial War Museum Duxford for military aircraft, Deutsches Panzermuseum for tanks or the International Spy Museum for espionage, The National World War I Museum for World War I or more generalist, such as the Canadian War Museum or the Musée de l'Armée.

Mobile museums

Mobile museum is a term applied to museums that make exhibitions from a vehicle, such as a van. Some institutions, such as St. Vital Historical Society and the Walker Art Center, use the term to refer to a portion of their collection that travels to sites away from the museum for educational purposes. Other mobile museums have no "home site", and use travel as their exclusive means of presentation.

Natural history museums

Museums of natural history and natural science typically exhibit work of the natural world. The focus lies on nature and culture. Exhibitions educate the public on natural history, dinosaurs, zoology, oceanography, anthropology and more. Evolution, environmental issues, and biodiversity are major areas in natural science museums. Notable museums include the Natural History Museum in London, the Oxford University Museum of Natural History in Oxford, the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller, Alberta, Denver Museum of Nature and Science and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. A rather minor Natural history museum is The Midwest Museum of Natural History is located in Sycamore, Illinois.

Open-air museums

Open-air museums collect and re-erect old buildings at large outdoor sites, usually in settings of re-created landscapes of the past. The first one was King Oscar II's collection near Oslo in Norway, opened in 1881. In 1907 it was incorporated into the Norsk Folkemuseum. In 1891, inspired by a visit to the open-air museum in Oslo, Artur Hazelius founded the Skansen in Stockholm, which became the model for subsequent open-air museums in Northern and Eastern Europe, and eventually in other parts of the world. Most open-air museums are located in regions where wooden architecture prevail, as wooden structures may be translocated without substantial loss of authenticity. A more recent but related idea is realized in ecomuseums, which originated in France.

Science museums

Science museums and technology centers revolve around scientific achievements, and marvels and their history. To explain complicated inventions, a combination of demonstrations, interactive programs and thought-provoking media are used. Some museums may have exhibits on topics such as computers, aviation, railway museums, physics, astronomy, and the animal kingdom.

Science museums, in particular, may consist of planetaria, or large theatre usually built around a dome. Museums may have IMAX feature films, which may provide 3-D viewing or higher quality picture. As a result, IMAX content provides a more immersive experience for people of all ages.

Also new virtual museums, known as ''Net Museums'', have recently been created. These are usually web sites belonging to real museums and containing photo galleries of items found in those real museums. This new presentation is very useful for people living far away who wish to see the contents of these museums.

Specialized museums

A number of different museums exist to demonstrate a variety of topics. Music museums may celebrate the life and work of composers or musicians, such as the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio, or even Rimsky-Korsakov Apartment and Museum in St Petersburg (Russia). Other music museums include live music recitals such as the Handel House Museum in London. In Glendale, Arizona, The Bead Museum fosters the appreciation and understanding of the global historical, cultural and artistic significance of beads and related artifacts. The permanent collection has beads from around the globe, including a 15,000 year old bead. Temporary exhibits are also available.

An example of a specialized museum, in this case devoted to horology, is the Cuckooland Museum in the United Kingdom, which hosts the world's largest and finest collection of antique cuckoo clocks.

Museums targeted for youth, such as children's museums or toy museums in many parts of the world, often exhibit interactive and educational material on a wide array of topics, for example, the Museum of Toys and Automata in Spain. The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is an institution of the sports category. The Corning Museum of Glass is devoted to the art, history, and science of glass. The National Museum of Crime & Punishment explores the science of solving crimes. The Great American Dollhouse Museum in Danville, Kentucky, U.S.A., depicts American social history in miniature. Interpretation centres are modern museums or visitors centres that often use new means of communication with the public. In some cases, museums cover an extremely wide range of topics together, such as the Museum of World Treasures in Wichita, KS.

Virtual museums

A recent development, with the expansion of the web, is the establishment of virtual museums. Online initiatives like the Virtual Museum of Canada and the National Museum of the United States Air Force provide physical museums with a web presence, as well as online curatorial platforms such as Rhizome.

Some virtual museums have no counterpart in the real world, such as LIMAC (Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Lima), which has no physical location and might be confused with the city's own museum. The art historian Griselda Pollock elaborated a virtual feminist museum, spreading between classical art to contemporary art.

Some real life museums are also using the internet for virtual tours and exhibitions. On March 23, Whitney Museum in New York organized what it called the first ever online Twitter museum tour.

Zoological parks and botanic gardens

Although zoos and botanic gardens are not often thought of as museums, they are in fact "living museums". They exist for the same purpose as other museums: to educate, inspire action, and to study, develop and manage collections. They are also managed much like other museums and face the same challenges. Notable zoos include the Bronx Zoo in New York, the London Zoo, the Los Angeles Zoo, the Philadelphia Zoo, the Saint Louis Zoological Park, the San Diego Zoo, Berlin Zoological Garden, the Taronga Zoo in Sydney, Frankfurt Zoological Garden, Jardin des Plantes in Paris, and Zürich Zoologischer Garten in Switzerland. Notable botanic gardens include Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Chicago Botanic Garden and Royal Botanical Gardens (Ontario).

Management

The museum is usually run by a director, who has a curatorial staff that cares for the objects and arranges their display. Large museums often will have a research division or institute, which are frequently involved with studies related to the museum's items, as well as an education department, in charge of providing interpretation of the materials to the general public. The director usually reports to a higher body, such as a governmental department or a board of trustees.

Objects come to the collection through a variety of means. Either the museum itself or an associated institute may organize expeditions to acquire more items or documentation for the museum. More typically, however, museums will purchase or trade for artifacts or receive them as donations or bequests.

For instance, a museum featuring Impressionist art may receive a donation of a Cubist work which simply cannot be fit into the museum's exhibits, but it can be used to help acquire a painting more central to the museum's focus. However, this process of acquiring objects outside the museum's purview in order to acquire more desirable objects is considered unethical by many museum professionals. Larger museums may have an "Acquisitions Department" whose staff is engaged full time for this purpose. Most museums have a collections policy to help guide what is and is not included in the collection.

Museums often cooperate to sponsor joint, often traveling, exhibits on particular subjects when one museum may not by itself have a collection sufficiently large or important. These exhibits have limited engagements and often depend upon an additional entry fee from the public to cover costs.

Museum planning

The design of museums has evolved throughout history. Interpretive museums, as opposed to art museums, have missions reflecting curatorial guidance through the subject matter which now include content in the form of images, audio and visual effects, and interactive exhibits. Museum creation begins with a museum plan, created through a museum planning process. The process involves identifying the museum's vision and the resources, organization and experiences needed to realize this vision. A feasibility study, analysis of comparable facilities and an interpretive plan are all developed as part of the museum planning process.

Some museum experiences have very few or no artifacts and do not necessarily call themselves museums; the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, being notable examples where there are few artifacts, but strong, memorable stories are told or information is interpreted. In contrast, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. uses many artifacts in their memorable exhibitions. Notably, despite their varying styles, the latter two were designed by Ralph Appelbaum Associates.

Exhibition design

Most mid-size and large museums employ exhibit design staff for graphic and environmental design projects, including exhibitions. In addition to traditional 2-D and 3-D designers and architects, these staff departments may include audio-visual specialists, software designers, audience research and evaluation specialists, writers, editors, and preparators or art handlers. These staff specialists may also be charged with supervising contract design or production services. The exhibit design process builds on the interpretive plan for an exhibit, determining the most effective, engaging and appropriate methods of communicating a message or telling a story. The process will often mirror the architectural process or schedule, moving from conceptual plan, through schematic design, design development, contract document, fabrication and installation. Museums of all sizes may also contract the outside services of exhibit fabrication businesses. Predator Exhibits, located in Ontario, Canada, is one such business.

Etymology

The English "museum" comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as "museums" (or rarely, "musea"). It is originally from the Greek ''Μουσεῖον'' (''Mouseion''), which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the Muses (the patron divinities in Greek mythology of the arts), and hence a building set apart for study and the arts, especially the Musaeum (institute) for philosophy and research at Alexandria by Ptolemy I Soter about 280 BCE. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens. However, Pausanias gives another place called "Museum", namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill and died there of old age and was subsequently buried there as well.

Most visited museums

See also

Audio tour

Cell phone tour

Exhibition history

Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum, world's first museum

Fire Museum

Green museum

International Museum Day (May 18)

List of museums

List of transport museums

Museum education

Museum label

Police Museum

Postal museum

Public memory

Virtual Library museums pages

References

Further reading

Rentzhog, Sten (2007). ''Open air museums: The history and future of a visionary idea''. Stockholm and Östersund: Carlssons Förlag / Jamtli. ISBN 978-91-7948-208-4

Four steps in the history of museum technologies and visitors' digital participation

External links

International Council of Museums (ICOM)

VLmp directory of museums (VLmp)

Category:Museology Category:Tourist activities Category:Greek loanwords

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bgcolour	#C0C0C0
name	Jasper Johns
birth date	May 15, 1930
birth place	Augusta, Georgia, U.S.
nationality	American
field	Painting, Printmaking
movement	Abstract Expressionism, Neo-Dada, Pop Art
works	''Flag,'' ''Numbers,'' ''Map,'' ''stenciled words''
influenced	Pop Art
awards	(1988) Awarded the Grand Prize for Painting at the Venice Biennial Artist of the year(1989) Awards By MIR(1990) National Medal of Arts(2011) Presidential Medal of Freedom }}

Jasper Johns, Jr. (born May 15, 1930) is an American contemporary artist who works primarily in painting and printmaking.

Life

Born in Augusta, Georgia, Jasper Johns spent his early life in Allendale, South Carolina with his paternal grandparents after his parents' marriage failed. He then spent a year living with his mother in Columbia, South Carolina and thereafter he spent several years living with his aunt Gladys in Lake Murray, South Carolina, twenty-two miles from Columbia. He completed high school in Sumter, South Carolina, where he once again lived with his mother. Recounting this period in his life, he says, "In the place where I was a child, there were no artists and there was no art, so I really didn't know what that meant. I think I thought it meant that I would be in a situation different than the one that I was in." He began drawing when he was three and has continued doing art ever since.

Johns studied at the University of South Carolina from 1947 to 1948, a total of three semesters. He then moved to New York City and studied briefly at the Parsons School of Design in 1949. In 1952 and 1953 he was stationed in Sendai, Japan during the Korean War.

In 1954, after returning to New York, Johns met Robert Rauschenberg and they became long term lovers. In the same period he was strongly influenced by the gay couple Merce Cunningham (a choreographer) and John Cage (a composer). Working together they explored the contemporary art scene, and began developing their ideas on art. In 1958, gallery owner Leo Castelli discovered Johns while visiting Rauschenberg's studio. Castelli gave him his first solo show. It was here that Alfred Barr, the founding director of New York's Museum of Modern Art, purchased four works from his exhibition. In 1963, Johns and Cage founded Foundation for Contemporary Performance Arts, now known as Foundation for Contemporary Arts in New York City. Johns currently lives in Sharon, Connecticut and the Island of Saint Martin. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1984.

On February 15, 2011 he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama, becoming the first painter or sculptor to receive a Presidential Medal of Freedom since Alexander Calder in 1977.

Work

He is best known for his painting ''Flag'' (1954–55), which he painted after having a dream of the American flag. His work is often described as a Neo-Dadaist, as opposed to pop art, even though his subject matter often includes images and objects from popular culture. Still, many compilations on pop art include Jasper Johns as a pop artist because of his artistic use of classical iconography.

Early works were composed using simple schema such as flags, maps, targets, letters and numbers. Johns' treatment of the surface is often lush and painterly; he is famous for incorporating such media as encaustic and plaster relief in his paintings. Johns played with and presented opposites, contradictions, paradoxes, and ironies, much like Marcel Duchamp (who was associated with the Dada movement). Johns also produces intaglio prints, sculptures and lithographs with similar motifs.

Johns' breakthrough move, which was to inform much later work by others, was to appropriate popular iconography for painting, thus allowing a set of familiar associations to answer the need for subject. Though the Abstract Expressionists disdained subject matter, it could be argued that in the end, they had simply changed subjects. Johns neutralized the subject, so that something like a pure painted surface could declare itself. For twenty years after Johns painted ''Flag'', the surface could suffice – for example, in Andy Warhol's silkscreens, or in Robert Irwin's illuminated ambient works.

Abstract Expressionist figures like Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning ascribed to the concept of a macho "artist hero," and their paintings are indexical in that they stand effectively as a signature on canvas. In contrast, Neo-Dadaists like Johns and Rauschenberg seemed preoccupied with a lessening of the reliance of their art on indexical qualities, seeking instead to create meaning solely through the use of conventional symbols. Some have interpreted this as a rejection of the hallowed individualism of the Abstract Expressionists. Their works also imply symbols existing outside of any referential context. Johns' ''Flag'', for instance, is primarily a visual object, divorced from its symbolic connotations and reduced to something in-itself.

In 1990, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. He is represented by the Matthew Marks Gallery in New York City, and in the spring 2008, a ten-year retrospective of Johns' drawings was mounted there.

Collection and acquisition

In 1998, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York bought Johns' ''White Flag''. While the Met would not disclose how much was paid, "experts estimate [the painting's] value at more than $20 million." In 2006, private collectors Anne and Kenneth Griffin (founder of the Chicago-based hedge fund Citadel LLC) bought Johns' ''False Start'' for $80 million, making it the most expensive painting by a living artist.

The National Gallery of Art acquired about 1,700 of Johns' proofs in 2007. This made the Gallery home to the largest number of Johns' works held by a single institution. The exhibition showed works from many points in Johns' career, including recent proofs of his prints.

Since the 1980s, Johns produces paintings at four to five a year, sometimes not at all during a year. His large scale paintings are much favored by collectors and because of their rarity, it is known that Johns' works are extremely difficult to acquire.

Skate’s Art Market Research (Skate Press, Ltd.), a New York based advisory firm servicing private and institutional investors in the art market, has ranked Jasper Johns as the 30th most valuable artist. The firm’s index of the 1,000 most valuable works of art sold at auction – Skate’s Top 1000 – contains 7 works by Johns.

The Greenville County Museum of Art in Greenville, South Carolina, has several of his pieces in their permanent collection.

Other work

''Flag'' (1954–55)

''White Flag'' (1955)

''Target with Plaster Casts'' (1955)

''False Start'' (1959)

''Three Flags'' (1958)

''Coathanger'' (1960)

''Painting With Two Balls'' (1960)

''Painted Bronze'' (1960)

''Device'' (1962-3)

''Periscope (Hart Crane)'' (1963)

''The Critic Sees'' (1964)

''Study for Skin'' (1962)

''Figure Five'' (1963–64)

''Voice'' (1967)

''Skull'' (1973)

''Tantric Detail'' (1980)

''Seasons'' (1986)

Numbers in Color(1958–59)

Titanic(1976–78)

Appearance in popular culture

In 1999, Jasper Johns guest-starred in the animated television series ''The Simpsons'', as himself. In the episode "Mom and Pop Art", Homer Simpson is hailed as an "outsider artist" after an art dealer discovers Homer's mangled brick barbecue grill, and Johns attends one of his exhibitions. Johns is portrayed as a kleptomaniac, constantly stealing food items, lightbulbs, a motorboat, and Marge's painting of the flooded town.

References

Busch, Julia M., ''A Decade of Sculpture: the New Media in the 1960s'' (The Art Alliance Press: Philadelphia; Associated University Presses: London, 1974) ISBN 0-87982-007-1

Suggested readings

Roberta Bernstein, Lilian Tone, Jasper Johns, and Kirk Varnedoe. ''Jasper Johns: A Retrospective'', The Museum of Modern Art, 2006.

Jeffrey Weiss. ''Jasper Johns: An Allegory of Painting, 1955-1965'', Yale University Press, 2007.

John Yau. ''A Thing Among Things: The Art of Jasper Johns,'' D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, 2008.

Max Kozloff. ''Jasper Johns'', Abrams, 1972. (out of print)

Michael Crichton. ''Jasper Johns'', Whitney/Abrams, 1977 (out of print).

Debra Pearlman. ''Where Is Jasper Johns? (Adventures in Art)'', Prestel Publishing, 2006.

Fred Orton. ''Figuring Jasper Johns'', Reaktion Books, 1994.

Jasper Johns, Kirk Varnedoe, Christel Hollevoet, and Robert Frank. ''Jasper Johns: Writings, Sketchbook Notes, Interviews'', The Museum of Modern Art, 2002 (out of print).

David Shapiro. ''Jasper Johns Drawings 1954-1984''. Abrams 1984 (out of print).

Riva Castleman. ''Japser Johns a print retrospetive''. The Museum of Modern Art 1986.

Rosalind E. Krauss and Christopher Knight. “Split decisions: Jasper Johns in retrospect” ''Artforum'', September 1996. Findarticles.com

Harold Rosenberg. "Jasper Johns: Things the Mind Already Knows,". ''Vogue'', 1964.

Roberta Bernstein. ''Jasper Johns' Paintings and Sculptures, 1954–1974: "The Changing Focus of the Eye."''. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1985.

Calvin Tomkins. ''Off the Wall: Robert Rauschenberg and the Artworld of our time''. Doubleday. 1980.

External links

Jasper Johns artwork at Brooke Alexander Gallery

Jasper Johns at the Matthew Marks Gallery

Jasper Johns Prints at Joseph K. Levene Fine Art, Ltd.

"The work of Jasper Johns at the National Gallery" Curator Jeffery Weiss discusses the Johns exhibition at the National Gallery. Charlie Rose show April 2007.

VAGA – To clear rights to reproduce works by Johns

Jasper Johns: An Allegory of Painting, 1955–1965, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

States and Variations: Prints by Jasper Johns at the National Gallery of Art

Jasper Johns (born 1930) Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Jasper Johns bio at artchive.com

''Flag'' at the Museum of Modern Art

''White Flag'' at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Collecting Jasper Johns's signature

False Start Act out a Jasper Johns painting.

Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts

Category:1930 births Category:American painters Category:American printmakers Category:Contemporary painters Category:Living people Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Category:Artists from New York Category:People from Augusta, Georgia Category:People from South Carolina Category:Pop artists Category:Postmodern artists Category:Artists from South Carolina Category:LGBT artists from the United States Category:Gay artists Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients Category:Parsons School of Design alumni Category:Wolf Prize in Arts laureates Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

ko:재스퍼 존스 ca:Jasper Johns de:Jasper Johns es:Jasper Johns fr:Jasper Johns hr:Jasper Johns it:Jasper Johns he:ג'ספר ג'ונס ka:ჯასპერ ჯოუნზი nl:Jasper Johns ja:ジャスパー・ジョーンズ no:Jasper Johns pl:Jasper Johns pt:Jasper Johns ro:Jasper Johns ru:Джонс, Джаспер fi:Jasper Johns sv:Jasper Johns tr:Jasper Johns zh:賈斯培·瓊斯

bgcolour	#6495ED
name	Ad Reinhardt
birth name	Frederick Adolph Reinhart
birth date	December 24, 1913
birth place	Buffalo, New York
death date	August 30, 1967
nationality	American
field	Abstract painting
movement	Abstract Expressionism
influenced	Monochrome painting, Minimal Art, Conceptual art
awards	}}

Adolph Frederick Reinhardt ("Ad" Reinhardt) (December 24, 1913 – August 30, 1967) was an Abstract painter active in New York beginning in the 1930s and continuing through the 1960s. He was a member of the American Abstract Artists and was a part of the movement centered around the Betty Parsons Gallery that became known as Abstract Expressionism. He was also a founding member of the Artist's Club. He wrote and lectured extensively on art and was a major influence on conceptual, minimal art and monochrome painting. Most famous for his "black" or "ultimate" paintings, he claimed to be painting the "last paintings" that anyone can paint. He believed in a philosophy of art he called ''Art-as-Art'' and used his writing and satirical cartoons to advocate for abstract art and against what he described as "the disreputable practices of artists-as-artists".

Background

Reinhardt was born in Buffalo, New York, and lived with his family in the Riverside section along the Niagara River. His cousin Otto and he were close, as well as the extended family, but work took his father to New York City. He later studied art history at Columbia University, where he was a close friend of Robert Lax and Thomas Merton. The three developed similar concepts of simplicity in different directions. Reinhardt considered himself a painter from a very early age and began winning prizes for painting in grade school and high school. Feeling that he had already acquired all the technical skills in high school he turned down scholarships at art schools and accepted a full scholarship at Columbia University which he attended from 1931 to 1935. He took painting classes as an undergraduate at Columbia's Teachers College and after graduation began to study painting with Carl Holty and Francis Criss at the American Artists School, while simultaneously studying portraiture at the National Academy of Design under Karl Anderson.

Upon finishing college he was accredited as a painter by Burgoyne Diller, which allowed him to work from 1936 until 1940 for the WPA Federal Art Project, easel division. Sponsored by Holty he became a member of the American Abstract Artists group, with whom he exhibited for the next decade. Reinhardt described his association with the group as "one of the greatest things that ever happened to me". He participated in group exhibitions at the Peggy Guggenheim Gallery, and he had his first one man show at the Artists Gallery in 1943. He then went on to be represented by Betty Parsons, exhibiting first at the Wakefield Bookshop, the Mortimer Brandt Gallery and then when she opened her own gallery on 57th street. Reinhardt had regular solo exhibitions yearly at the Betty Parsons Gallery beginning in 1946. He was involved in the 1940 protest against MoMA, designing the leaflet that asked ''How modern is the Museum of Modern Art''? His works were displayed regularly throughout the 40s and 50s at the Annual Exhibitions held at the Whitney Museum of American Art. He was also part of the protest against the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1950 which became known as "The Irascibles."

Having completed his studies at the New York University Institute of Fine Arts, Reinhardt became a teacher at Brooklyn College in 1947 and taught there until his death in 1967. He also taught at the California School of Fine Arts in San Francisco, the University of Wyoming, Yale University and Hunter College, New York.

The Ad Reinhardt Estate is represented by The Pace Gallery, New York.

Works

Paintings

Reinhardt's earliest exhibited paintings avoided representation, but show a steady progression away from objects and external reference. His work progressed from compositions of geometrical shapes in the 1940s to works in different shades of the same color (all red, all blue, all white) in the 1950s. Reinhardt is best known for his so-called "black" paintings of the 1960s, which appear at first glance to be simply canvases painted black but are actually composed of black and nearly black shades. Among many other suggestions, these paintings ask if there can be such a thing as an absolute, even in black, which some viewers may not consider a color at all.

Writings

His writing includes comments on his own work and that of his contemporaries. His concise wit, sharp focus, and sense of abstraction make them interesting reading even for those who have not seen his paintings. Like his paintings, his writing remains controversial decades after its composition. ''Art as Art'', edited by Barbara Rose, University of California Press, 1991.

Graphics

Reinhardt joined the staff of ''PM'' in 1942 and he worked full time at this daily newspaper until 1947, with time out while drafted for active duty in the U.S. Navy. While at ''PM'' he produced several thousand cartoons and illustrations most notably the series of famous and widely reproduced ''How to Look at Art'' series. Reinhardt also illustrated the highly influential and controversial pamphlet ''Races of Mankind'' (1943) originally intended for distribution to the U.S. Army, but after being banned subsequently sold close to a million copies. He also illustrated a children's book ''A Good Man and His Good Wife''. While attending Columbia University he designed many covers and illustrations for the humor magazine ''Jester'' and was its editor in his senior year (1934–35). Other commercial art work was done "for such varied employers as the Brooklyn Dodgers, Glamour magazine, the CIO, Macy's, The New York Times, the National Council of American-Soviet Friendship, The Book and Magazine Guild, the American Jewish Labor Council, New Masses, the Saturday Evening Post, Ice Cream World, and ''Listen'' magazine. He also illustrated many books such as ''Who's Who in the Zoo (book)''.

Recent exhibitions

The Guggenheim Museum has shown Reinhardt's ''Black Painting'' as part of their ''Imageless'' exhibition, which closed September 14, 2008.

The New York Academy of Sciences recently did a Podcast featuring information about the restoration work being done to the ''Black Painting'', with commentary from the Guggenheim's Chief Conservator Carol Stringari. That Podcast can be listened to here.

The Josef Albers Museum Quadrat in Bottrop (Germany) shows Rheinhardts ''Last Paintings'' and earlier works along with works from Josef Albers (''Hommage to the Square'' and other) from 26 September 2010 to 09 January 2011. Both worked at Yale University in 1952/53 when J. Albers offered Reinhardt a guest professorship. Details in English are available at press_release.pdf

References

Lippard, Lucy R. ''Ad Reinhardt '' (Harry N. Abrams, 1981.) ISBN: 0810915545 : 9780810915541

Marika Herskovic, ''American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey,'' (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. p. 278-281

Marika Herskovic, ''New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists,'' (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6. p. 16; p. 38; p. 298-301

Busch, Julia M. (1974) ''A Decade of Sculpture: the New Media in the 1960s'', The Art Alliance Press (Associated University Presses), ISBN 0-87982-007-1

Müller-Yao, Marguerite Hui: ''Der Einfluß der Kunst der chinesischen Kalligraphie auf die westliche informelle Malerei'', Diss. Bonn, Köln 1985. ISBN 3-88375-051-4

Müller-Yao, Marguerite: ''Informelle Malerei und chinesische Kalligrafie’’, in: ’’Informel, Begegnung und Wandel’’, (hrsg von Heinz Althöfer, Schriftenreihe des Museums am Ostwall; Bd. 2), Dortmund 2002, ISBN 3-611-01062-6

Stratenschulte, Julian: ''Josef Albers Museum Opens Exhibition of the Last Paintings Made by Ad Reinhardt'' at artdaily.org

External links

Ad Reinhardt Foundation

The Pace Gallery

Ad Reinhardt bio at Guggenheim Museum site

Art Collection at MOMA site

American Abstract Artists

Ad Reinhardt Papers at the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art

Abe Ajay correspondence with Ad Reinhardt, 1963-1967 from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art

''Last Paintings.'' Exhibition at the Josef Albers Museum Quadrat in Bottrop

Category:1913 births Category:1967 deaths Category:American painters Category:Modern painters Category:People from Buffalo, New York Category:Columbia University alumni Category:Brooklyn College faculty Category:People of the New Deal arts projects Category:Archives of American Art related

de:Ad Reinhardt es:Ad Reinhardt fr:Ad Reinhardt hu:Ad Reinhardt nl:Ad Reinhardt ru:Рейнхардт, Эд sv:Ad Reinhardt

bgcolour	#6495ED
name	Franz Kline
birth name	Franz Jozef Kline
birth date	May 23, 1910
birth place	Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
death date	May 13, 1962
death place	New York City, New York
nationality	American
field	Abstract Painting
training	Boston University
movement	Abstract Expressionism, Action Painting
influenced by	Willem de Kooning, Japanese calligraphy
influenced	Several generations of Abstract painters
awards	}}

Franz Jozef Kline (May 23, 1910 – May 13, 1962) was an American painter mainly associated with the Abstract Expressionist movement centered around New York in the 1940s and 1950s. He was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, attended Girard College, an academy for fatherless boys, attended Boston University, spent summers from 1956-62 painting in Provincetown, Massachusetts, and died in New York City of a rheumatic heart disease. He was married to Elizabeth Vincent Parsons, a British ballet dancer.

Career

As with Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, he was labeled an "action painter" because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas. For most of Kline's [mature and representative] work, however, as the phrase goes, "spontaneity is practiced". He would prepare many draft sketches – notably, commonly on refuse telephone book pages – before going to make his "spontaneous" work.

Black and white and color

Kline's best known abstract expressionist paintings are in black and white. Kline re-introduced color into his paintings around 1955, though he used color more consistently after 1959. Kline's paintings are deceptively subtle. While generally his paintings have a dynamic, spontaneous and dramatic impact, Kline often closely referred to his compositional drawings. Kline carefully rendered many of his most complex pictures from studies. There seem to be references to Japanese calligraphy in Kline's black and white paintings, although he always denied that connection. Bridges, tunnels, buildings, engines, railroads and other architectural and industrial icons are often suggested as imagery informing Kline's work.

Kline's most recognizable method/style derives from a suggestion made to him by his friend Willem De Kooning. In 1948, de Kooning suggested to an artistically frustrated Kline to bring in a sketch and project it with a Bell Opticon opaque projector he had at his studio. Kline described the projection as such:

:"A four by five inch black drawing of a rocking chair...loomed in gigantic black strokes which eradicated any image, the strokes expanding as entities in themselves, unrelated to any entity but that of their own existence."

Kline created paintings in the style of what he saw that day throughout his life. In 1950, he exhibited many works in this style at the Charles Egan Gallery.

See also

New York School

Action painting

Abstract expressionism

References

Elaine de Kooning, "Franz Kline: Painter of His Own Life", ''ARTnews'', Volume 61, November 1962

Marika Herskovic, ''American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey,'' (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. p. 186-189

Marika Herskovic, ''New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists,'' (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6. p. 8; p. 12; p. 16; p. 25; p. 37; p. 202-205

Further reading

ed. Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev, et al. ''Franz Kline (1910–1962)'' (Skira) (ISBN 88-7624-141-8)

Harry F. Gaugh ''Franz Kline'' (Abbeville Press)

External links

Comprehensive catalog project

Franz Kline on the Artchive

Phillips Collection bio

Untitled 1957 at the Phillips Collection

Photo at Findagrave

Category:1910 births Category:1962 deaths Category:Abstract expressionist artists Category:American painters Category:Modern painters Category:American artists Category:Artists from New York Category:People from Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Category:People from Greenwich Village, New York Category:Boston University alumni Category:Black Mountain College faculty

de:Franz Kline es:Franz Kline fr:Franz Kline it:Franz Kline nl:Franz Kline pl:Franz Kline pt:Franz Kline ru:Клайн, Франц sr:Франц Клајн (сликар) fi:Franz Kline tr:Franz Kline

bgcolour	silver
name	Barnett Newman
birth date	January 29, 1905
birth place	New York City, New York
death date	July 04, 1970
nationality	American
field	Painting
movement	Abstract Expressionism, Color Field painting
works	''The Stations of the Cross,'' ''Vir heroicus sublimis''
awards	}}

Barnett Newman (January 29, 1905 – July 4, 1970) was an American artist. He is seen as one of the major figures in abstract expressionism and one of the foremost of the color field painters.

Early life

Newman was born in New York City, the son of Jewish immigrants from Poland. He studied philosophy at the City College of New York and worked in his father's business manufacturing clothing. From the 1930s he made paintings, said to be in an expressionist style, but eventually destroyed all these works.

A well-respected writer and critic who also organized exhibitions and wrote catalogs, Newman later became a member of the Uptown Group.

Career

Barnett Newman wrote catalogue forewords and reviews before having his first solo show at the Betty Parsons Gallery in 1948. Soon after his first exhibition, Newman remarked in one of the Artists' Session at Studio 35: "We are in the process of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own image." Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought every step of the way to reinforce his newly established image as an artist and to promote his work. An example is his letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter to Sidney Janis: ...it is true that Rothko talks the fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the philistine world. My struggle against bourgeois society has involved the total rejection of it."

Throughout the 1940s he worked in a surrealist vein before developing his mature style. This is characterised by areas of color separated by thin vertical lines, or "zips" as Newman called them. In the first works featuring zips, the color fields are variegated, but later the colors are pure and flat. Newman himself thought that he reached his fully mature style with the ''Onement'' series (from 1948). The zips define the spatial structure of the painting, whilst simultaneously dividing and uniting the composition.

The zip remained a constant feature of Newman's work throughout his life. In some paintings of the 1950s, such as ''The Wild'', which is eight feet tall by one and a half inches wide, the zip is all there is to the work. Newman also made a few sculptures which are essentially three-dimensional zips.

Although Newman's paintings appear to be purely abstract, and many of them were originally untitled, the names he later gave them hinted at specific subjects being addressed, often with a Jewish theme. Two paintings from the early 1950s, for example, are called ''Adam'' and ''Eve'' (see Adam and Eve), and there is also ''Uriel'' (1954) and ''Abraham'' (1949), a very dark painting, which as well as being the name of a biblical patriarch, was also the name of Newman's father, who had died in 1947. ''The Stations of the Cross'' series of black and white paintings (1958–66), begun shortly after Newman had recovered from a heart attack, is usually regarded as the peak of his achievement. The series is subtitled "Lema sabachthani" - "why have you forsaken me" - words spoken by Christ on the cross. Newman saw these words as having universal significance in his own time. The series has also been seen as a memorial to the victims of the holocaust.

Newman's late works, such as the ''Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue'' series, use vibrant, pure colors, often on very large canvases - ''Anna's Light'' (1968), named in memory of his mother who had died in 1965, is his largest work, 28 feet wide by nine feet tall. Newman also worked on shaped canvases late in life, with ''Chartres'' (1969), for example, being triangular, and returned to sculpture, making a small number of sleek pieces in steel. These later paintings are executed in acrylic paint rather than the oil paint of earlier pieces. Of his sculptures, ''Broken Obelisk'' (1963) is the most monumental and best-known, depicting an inverted obelisk whose point balances on the apex of a pyramid.

Newman also made a series of lithographs, the ''18 Cantos'' (1963–64) which, according to Newman, are meant to be evocative of music. He also made a small number of etchings.

Newman is generally classified as an abstract expressionist on account of his working in New York City in the 1950s, associating with other artists of the group and developing an abstract style which owed little or nothing to European art. However, his rejection of the expressive brushwork employed by other abstract expressionists such as Clyfford Still and Mark Rothko, and his use of hard-edged areas of flat color, can be seen as a precursor to post painterly abstraction and the minimalist works of artists such as Frank Stella.

Newman was unappreciated as an artist for much of his life, being overlooked in favour of more colorful characters such as Jackson Pollock. The influential critic Clement Greenberg wrote enthusiastically about him, but it was not until the end of his life that he began to be taken really seriously. He was, however, an important influence on many younger painters.

Legacy

Newman died in New York City of a heart attack in 1970.

Nine years after his death, Newman's widow Annalee founded the Barnett Newman Foundation. The Foundation not only functions as his official Estate, but also serves "to encourage the study and understanding of Barnett Newman's life and works." The Foundation was instrumental in creating Newman's Catalogue Raisonne in 2004. The U.S. copyright representative for the Barnett Newman Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.

Selected collections

Among the public collections holding works by Barnett Newman are the Addison Gallery of American Art (Andover, Massachusetts), the Allen Memorial Art Museum (Oberlin College, Ohio), the Art Institute of Chicago, the Berlin State Museums, the Cleveland Museum of Art, Harvard University Art Museums, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington D.C.), the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Kawamura Memorial Museum of Art (Japan), Kunstmuseum Basel (Switzerland), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Menil Collection (Houston, Texas), the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (Madrid), the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, the Museum of Modern Art (New York City), the Nasher Sculpture Center (Dallas, Texas), the Nassau County Museum of Art (Roslyn Harbor, New York), the National Gallery of Art (Washington D.C.), the National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa), the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, the Sheldon Museum of Art (Lincoln, Nebraska), the Smithsonian American Art Museum (Washington D.C.), Stedelijk Museum (Amsterdam), the Tate Gallery (London), the Wadsworth Atheneum (Hartford, Connecticut), the Walker Art Center (Minneapolis, Minnesota), the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum (Cologne, Germany), and the Whitney Museum of American Art (New York City).

See also

''Voice of Fire'' painted by Newman in 1967.

Broken Obelisk

References

Further reading

Marika Herskovic, ''American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey'' (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4

Ann Temkin, ''Barnett Newman'' (Yale University Press, 2002.) [Catalogue for the Exhibition "Barnett Newman," Philadelphia Museum of Art, March 24 to July 7, 2002; Tate Modern London, September 19, 2002, to January 5, 2003] ISBN 0876331568

Ellyn Childs Allison, ed., ''Barnett Newman: A Catalogue Raisonné'' (Yale University Press, 2004.) ISBN 0300101678

Bruno Eble, "Barnett Newman et l'art roman", Paris, L'Harmattan, 2011, 267 p. ISBN 978-2-296-55188-6

External links

The Barnett Newman Foundation

Newman exhibition at the Tate Gallery

Newman exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art

Newman's page at the Tate Gallery (includes images of the ''18 Cantos'' and other works)

American Museum of Natural History, Dept. of Anthropology correspondence with Barnett Newman and Betty Parsons, 1944-1946 in the collection of the Smithsonian Archives of American Art

Category:1905 births Category:1970 deaths Category:Abstract expressionist artists Category:American painters Category:Jewish painters Category:Jewish American artists Category:Artists from New York Category:Modern painters Category:American artists Category:Art Students League of New York alumni Category:Jewish artists

az:Barnett Nyuman de:Barnett Newman es:Barnett Newman fr:Barnett Newman it:Barnett Newman nl:Barnett Newman ja:バーネット・ニューマン no:Barnett Newman pl:Barnett Newman pt:Barnett Newman ru:Ньюман, Барнетт sv:Barnett Newman tr:Barnett Newman